Star Trek: Myth or Missed Opportunity

Janet McMullen

Chris Gregory. Star Trek: Parallel Narratives. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press, 2000. 253 pages. Notes, Bibliography, and Index. $35.00

Michael C. Pounds. Race in Space: The Representation of Ethnicity in Star Trek and Star Trek: The Next Generation. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 1999. $32.50

Chris Gregory and Michael C. Pounds have added two interesting volumes to the growing collection of academic works on the Star Trek phenomenon. The original series, which debuted in 1965, and was canceled after only three seasons, has been followed by an animated series, eight feature films, and three additional television series each running seven years. Star Trek has become a multimedia phenomenon. Magazines, novels, comic books, computer and video games, technical manuals, and other reference works have been marketed with great success. In addition to biographies and autobiographies of key participants in the production, academics have examined the physics (Krauss, 1995; Krauss, 1998), metaphysics (Hanley, 1998; Porter and McLaren, 1999), the psychology (Sekuler and Blake, 1999) and even business management styles of Star Trek (Roberts and Ross, 1996). Communication scholars have approached the series from a cultural studies perspective (Harrison, Projansky, Ono, and Helford, 1996; Roberts, 1999; Wagner and Lundeen, 1998; Richards, 1999; Bernardi, 1998) examining the meanings and representations of race, culture, and gender in the programs and films. That work is continued in Chris Gregory’s Star Trek: Parallel Narratives and Michael Pound’s Race in Space: The Representation of Ethnicity in Star Trek and Star Trek, the Next Generation. Both books examine the development of the Star Trek phenomenon as well as the socio-cultural and political context in which that occurred. Gregory’s text focuses on Star Trek as a modern myth and contrasts the simplicity of the original program with the growing complexity of later series, while Pound addresses the depiction of ethnicity.

Gregory believes that television texts are frequently held in lower esteem than film texts because the multiplicity of writers, producers, directors, and actors, as well as changing competitive pressures and institutional requirements, make consensus about specific aesthetic criteria for television programs difficult to achieve. Such consensus is equally elusive for individual series. Given that perspective, Gregory focuses on three key themes in Star Trek: Parallel Narratives. All three are related to the unique "televisual" qualities of Star Trek: the multi-authored text, the increasing dependence on postmodern self-referential plot and character elements, and the many ways in which it meets the requirements of a mythological system. The book is divided into three parts, each reflecting one of the key themes.

In part 1 the development of the original series, the films, and Star Trek: The Next Generation, DS-9, and Voyager are discussed. Chapter 1 clearly and concisely lays the groundwork. It examines the nature of television in the 1950s and 1960s with its basic narrative structure and how that structure changed in the next three decades to become more complex, visual, and postmodern. The desire for mass audience mandated that early television programs focus on action rather than ideas, and main characters were portrayed as highly moral individuals who, though they might struggle, always took the high road. Commercial television required fixed time slots, regular and predictable breaks for commercials, and self-contained episodes that allowed a new viewer to tune in and understand the program. Audiences understood what to expect in both character and plot, and even simple aberrations became significant. When Spock struggled to control his emotions in the episode "The Naked Time," large amounts of fan mail resulted. Gregory emphasizes that while Star Trek was a fairly conventional television narrative, many of the themes it considered reflected creator Gene Roddenberry’s liberal humanist perspective. The United Federation of Planets was a voluntary union of diverse cultures in pursuit of common and high-minded goals. Racism, sexism, and imperialism were frowned on, while personal liberty and tolerance of diversity were held in high regard. These Federation values were frequently contrasted to the violence, barbarism, and bigotry of the Klingons, Romulans, and other villains. Star Trek seemed to say that in the future humans would rise above many of the struggles faced in the twentieth century. Still, network opposition meant not all of Roddenberry’s attempts to create an ideal future through casting and plot devices were successful. In the context of the 1960s television, the strides he made were enormously significant, particularly the casting of African American Nichelle Nichols as Lt. Uhura.

A changed institutional and cultural environment caused the next Star Trek series to be very different. Cable and satellite television, the VCR, and decreasing network shares mandated a segmented market approach rather than a mass appeal program. While the classical television structure remained, the simplicity of original Trek would not work. Television characters of the 1980s were allowed to make mistakes, to be vulnerable. They could be explored in more depth. Because networks refused the series, Star Trek: The Next Generation was syndicated. Without network standards and practices executives restricting them, Roddenberry and his production staff had more freedom to explore more complex social and cultural themes. Further, popular forms of mass culture had gained a new respect as old boundaries began to erode. Gregory shows how network series such as Moonlighting and Beauty and the Beast moved television from a primarily word-based communication system to one that was much more visually oriented. Film directors such as Steven Spielberg, David Lynch, and George Lucas all had shows on television in the 1980s, while the VCR meant TV was no longer a disposable medium. These factors enabled a more cinematic visual quality and more complex characters. Audiences could preserve and review episodes and subsequently immerse themselves in a discrete alternate world.

In Next Generation and later series, Gregory argues, "Star Trek now presents an entire ‘parallel universe’ with its own political, economic and social system, a symbolic landscape in which a great many contemporary concerns, ranging from euthanasia to disability to abortion to genetic engineering, can be explored." (21) At the same time, while retaining many of the structures and concepts of the original series, The Next Generation was able to shed some of the narrative limitations of the first series. No longer was the star ship Enterprise a "wagon train to the stars," braving the unknowns of a dangerous frontier. Rather the captain of the Enterprise-C was more diplomat and scientist than adventurer, responsible for a ship peopled by families as well as Star Fleet personnel. Additionally, the new series moved from a self-contained episodic series format to more of a serial format in which the back stories of ensemble characters could be revealed and referred to as multiple and interwoven story arcs were developed over the years. In the 1980s and 1990s a complete history of the Federation was developed and consistently maintained through Next Generation, DS-9, and Voyager.

Gregory asserts that this complex, multi-leveled, and self-referential nature of the later Star Trek series and films classifies them as postmodern works. Although the intimacy of the television-audience relationship has always been postmodern in a sense, these later works are more distinctly, owing to the continuing self-referentiality of Star Trek episodes and films and the mutability of characters and even reality itself. In the later series, Captain Kirk, Mr. Spock, and Dr. McCoy are referred to as legendary heroes from an earlier, more primitive time, and comparisons are drawn between that time and the advancements enjoyed by those in the new series. Gregory cites the Next Generation episode "Relics," in which engineer Montgomery Scott from the first series finds himself suspended for sixty years as result of an accident. When he joins the crew of the new Enterprise, he is hopelessly behind the times and feels "useless." Of course, Scott proves his worth, but the point is made: things are different now. Those differences reflect cultural changes in the real world as well, but they acknowledge the enjoyment individuals take in understanding the difference and appreciating the improvement. Another classic episode cited to illustrate this point is the DS-9 thirtieth Star Trek birthday special, "Trials and Tibble-ations." In this episode digital imaging technology enabled the cast of the DS-9 to be integrated into the "Trouble with Tribbles" episode of the original series. The plot involves a time-line paradox which, of course, the DS-9 crew is able to correct while the audience knowingly appreciates the sight of the new crew in the classic text. While these episodes both refer to the original series, they also reflect the postmodern perspective that reality is not absolute. Scotty finds himself in a time beyond his normal life span. In other episodes main characters are divided, altered, or possessed by alien life forms. "Trials and Tibble-ations" concerns time travel, and several others deal with time paradoxes in which alternate time lines may exist. Still others episodes address the existence of a parallel universe or even multiple universes. "Thus Star Trek’s storytelling universe exists in a condition where there are no ‘absolutes,’ only an infinite number of different possibilities" (22).

Subsequent chapters in part 1 illustrate these key concepts by examining the development, content, and social context of each series and motion picture. Special attention is given to the creative work of Gene Roddenberry and Rick Berman (who assumed the role of executive producer to TNG after Roddenberry’s health began to fail) and to particular writers, producers, and directors who made significant contributions to the development of the Star Trek world. The socio-cultural context in which each work was produced is also considered.

The analysis of each series provides a revealing look into thematic content. Star Trek: The Next Generation broke new ground with its ensemble inter-species cast, its televisual qualities, continuing story arcs, and stress on the imperfection of its characters . As the back story on characters was developed, plots flowed from the characters rather than exterior sources. DS-9 was a darker version of Star Trek, much more of a political drama, but with the institution of the serial format and continuing back story of characters, it was able to develop characters and relationships even more deeply than TNG. The format also allowed the series to be more "oppositional and more psychologically realistic than earlier formats" (49). With the addition of a new starship, Defiant, the series became more action-oriented as the political situations intensify to the point of war. Voyager continued the development of the series, maintaining the serial form, an ensemble cast, and a focus on character. However, Voyager brought back the elements of romance, isolation, and exploration as the crew struggled to return from the Delta Quadrant with a female captain in command. Unfortunately, Star Trek: Parallel Narratives was completed before the final seasons of DS-9 and before Seven-Of-Nine joined the Voyager crew, and so the discussions of these series are not as complete as earlier chapters and cannot address significant story arcs and character development in those series. Given the thorough and thoughtful analysis of the series and seasons discussed, a reader with knowledge of the latter seasons of these two series will undoubtedly miss Gregory’s discussion of them.

Part 2 addresses the ritual and mythos of Star Trek as it emerged as a cult series. Chapter 7 examines the elements of a cult series and the role of religious belief in the Star Trek series. According to Gregory, "In the case of Star Trek, the development of a ‘cult’ audience was encouraged by the fact that the original series projected a positive vision of the future in an era dominated by distopian predictions" (107). This was particularly significant given the world wide political problems of the period. The humor in the series encouraged fans to participate in and play with the stories. If Kirk, Spock, and McCoy could poke fun at themselves and each other, then certainly fans would not have to take them too seriously. The characters and scenarios became approachable, to be considered and examined and discussed in the global community of participants.

Gregory points out the many similarities between rituals of religious activity and those associated with mass media. Mass media stars are sometimes "worshipped" by fans. Fans also get a sense of belonging to a group which is exclusive and which can provide a sense of identity for them. Pleasure is drawn from understanding the texts of the series and excitement from learning new revelations about the "truth" of the series. Some fans find social satisfaction in association with other fans or by dressing up as characters and vicariously interacting with key figures in the series. Obviously, most fans participate in such activities with a clear understanding of the ironic and semi-serious nature of what they are doing, nor would they consider their devotion to Star Trek as a religious activity. Nevertheless, Gregory documents the depth of involvement fans have with the series, including conventions, Klingon organizations, and fans who have learned and speak the Klingon language. The chapter also addresses the series’ gradual acknowledgement and acceptance of religious beliefs. In the original series, very little credence was given to religious faith, a position consistent with the humanist perspective of the program and its producer. Religion was replaced by science and logics as means to find truth and fulfillment. Some references to Vulcan meditation are made respectfully in TNG, but in DS-9 the first exploration of religious beliefs by main characters occurs as the Bajoran religion becomes a key part of the major story arcs and a focal concern for Captain Benjamin Sisko.

Chapter 8 shifts attention to the characteristics of myth and examines the ways in which Star Trek shares those characteristics. As mythical narratives evolve through the contributions of numerous storytellers with varying cultural elements and traditional stories. Star Trek is certainly the product of numerous creative minds, constructed over a period of time to recount the heroic activities of heroes who, not unlike the heroes of the Odyssey or Arthurian legends, "‘seek their destinies’ through heroic adventure" (115). Myths are stories designed to reveal, through the hero’s struggles, the role and place of humanity in the universe. Usually set outside of contemporary time, these heroes often have unusual or fantastic powers. Audiences use their exploits to come to understand the moral codes of their culture. As societies came to depend more on logic and science, the role of myth in society diminished. Gregory illustrates how this transition is significant in Star Trek. "The tension between mythos and logos— between the myth and its interpretation, between faith and rationality, religion and science—gives Star Trek much of its dramatic focus and energy. In the original series mythos and logos are contrasted prominently" (117). Mr. Spock represents the purely scientific and logical, Dr. McCoy represents the physical and emotional, and Captain Kirk finds the solution somewhere in between. It is the question of finding balance that draws our interest to episode after episode, partly because Star Trek characters represent universal and basic issues and images with which all people identify on some level. These archetypal characters have been the foundation of myth and drama for centuries, and each Star Trek series taps slightly different but compelling archetypes. The logician, the child-person, the spiritual warrior, and the hero-leader are all represented, and all take the mythic hero’s journey through varying episodes and multiple story arcs. Star Trek is a canvass for continued expressions of heroism and journeys of the mind, body, and soul. Although Star Trek characters have their vulnerabilities, they behave with super-human strength, determination, ingenuity, and devotion to a higher good. Gregory examines numerous episodes from each series to illustrate each point and demonstrate how Star Trek stories fulfill the four functions of mythic stories by operating on levels that are sociological, psychological, cosmological, and metaphysical.

In the final three chapters, the author examines how Star Trek has been used to examine the significant themes and issues of contemporary society. Set in a distant but believable future, the science fiction series is a safe environment in which to explore issues too controversial for a series set in contemporary time. Thus, characters can explore issues related to artificial intelligence, cloning, racism, or euthanasia more openly than characters such as Dr. Marcus Welby (Marcus Welby, M.D.) or Dr. Mark Green (E.R.). The time paradox stories allow even more exploration in philosophical and ethical questions about reality and morality. Chapters 10 and 11 examine psychological and political themes. Gregory closes the book with a chapter on the social themes of Star Trek, certainly a dominant thematic focus of all four series. In his final discussion of the TNG episode "Darmok," he summarizes: "Star Trek thus defines itself as a system of modern mythology which focus on fundamental human concerns, but always maintains an attitude of tolerance and open-mindedness. Above all, it offers a range of new perspectives on the present and a believable way of imagining a hopeful future in which human beings can avoid the mistakes of the past" (195).

I found Star Trek: Parallel Narratives to be a thoughtful and thorough book. Gregory’s application of the concepts of mythos are well supported and thoroughly discussed, and his key ideas are well-structured, focused, and clearly stated. His solid understanding of the series and familiarity with the characters, episodes, and story arcs provide interesting and credible illustrations for his ideas. His obvious appreciation and understanding of Star Trek results in an enjoyable but still scholarly book. The book would be appropriate for undergraduate or graduate television criticism courses, and would be enjoyed by any serious Star Trek viewer.

As an African-American, Michael C. Pounds brings a special perspective to his evaluation of the ethnicity of Star Trek. He writes in his introduction, "I sensed that Star Trek was more than mere escapism. For me it confirmed my hope for blacks, and other ethnic groups of a better future world" (8). Certainly, he is not alone in that perception. The original series was notable for its concern with themes of race and with breaking barriers, sometimes at the risk of losing viewer loyalty or network support. In Race in Space, The Representation of Ethnicity in Star Trek and Star Trek: The Next Generation, Pounds examines how Star Trek and Star Trek: The Next Generation depict their social contexts as society’s agendas shift regarding race and ethnicity. He does so by evaluating the narrative circumstances and situations in which ethnic characters are presented and the values and beliefs represented by those depictions.

The early chapters of the book provide historical perspective. Chapter 1 examines the social, economic, and cultural issues that affected the depiction and participation of ethnic minorities in the broadcasting industry. Chapter 2 looks at network television in the 1960s and the development and three-year run of the first Star Trek series. During the late 1950s and early 1960s, series with interracial casts faced uncertain futures and certain challenge. Some southern affiliates refused to carry NBC’s I Spy because of its interracial lead characters, and Sammy Davis Jr. and Nat King Cole both had programs dropped from network schedules. Still, Star Trek developed a loyal fan base and remained on the air amid schedule changes and production battles. During its three-year tenure, the program addressed racial issues in numerous episodes and was complimented by Martin Luther King. Pounds chronicles the battles with the networks, key episodes concerning racial themes, as well as Dr. King’s approval of the Uhura character, played by Nichelle Nichols. Chapter 3 continues the historical background with examination of changes in the culture and the industry during the 1970s and 1980s. Pounds argues that while there was a strong movement to integrate racial minorities into television programs, the industry, and the culture in the 1960s, by the early 1980s, there was an attitude that all that needed to be accomplished had been accomplished. Further, the ownership of the networks and the structure of the television industry had changed dramatically, so that when Star Trek: The Next Generation was introduced, producer Gene Roddenberry was in less of a position to take risks than he had been in the first series. While institutional changes ultimately led Roddenberry to market his new series via syndication rather than through the networks, he was far more focused on the economic realities than breaking barriers. Chapter 3, "Change Beyond Television," offers an excellent look at the development of the series and the economic realities that shaped it. Near the end of the chapter, the author examines the shift of focus between the first and second Star Trek series. Captain Picard was more cerebral and less inclined to take risks than Captain Kirk had been. The role of the Captain in The Next Generation was one of thinker, diplomat, scientist, and explorer. He was a protector of the ship and crew, and not the risk-taker his predecessor had been. Further, while the new series focused on ethnicity, it did so to a lesser degree, and Pounds observes that focus was at more a personal than a societal level.

In chapter 4, "Casting into the Future," the depictions of characters in both series are analyzed semiotically. Pounds examines in great depth the meaning of various character names, but neglects to mention whether those choices were by Roddenberry’s design or whether the meanings he assigns are the product of his own semiotic interpretation. He notes variances in character costume in Next Generation, indicating such variances were used to set ethnic characters apart from non-ethnic characters. However, those costuming details may not have been designed to brand an ethnic person as different, but rather they may have been a means to differentiate all characters from each other. Such efforts are necessary to help audiences identify and remember character traits and back stories that have to be quickly drawn in episodic television. Such decisions may be a matter of story-telling and practicality rather than ethnic bias or insensitivity. At one point, Pounds criticizes the positioning of Captain Picard in the center of a photo, surrounded by beautiful single crew members. He writes, "This blocking strategy underscores that privilege of patriarchal authority that grants the white male leader access to women. Picard, with a lovely lady on each arm, is marked as the most important and powerful male in the grouping." At the risk of sounding insensitive, one might respond that Picard was the captain; is not the captain supposed to be the most powerful and important person on a vessel? The photo in question was also a publicity shot, intended to establish character roles and draw attention to the series. Should not such a photo establish the captain as the "most powerful and important" person? While Picard is in the center of the frame, Pounds neglects to mention that Guinan, an African American woman played by Whoopie Goldberg, is placed in a higher position, centered behind and above Picard. Nor does the argument about "access to women" withstand scrutiny beyond application to this single photo. Had the captain in question been James T. Kirk, known to original series viewers as an intergalactic lover of sorts, Pounds’s first observation might have been warranted. However, Picard did not use his position to woo female members of his crew or other females with whom he came in contact. As one possible interpretation of a photo, Pounds might have a credible point. Extrapolated to the series as a whole, the position that the captain has privileged access to the women of his crew seems exaggerated. Pounds goes on to discuss the dominance of the white male captain as the lonely figure through whom all expertise must be synthesized and how that representation emphasizes "the hierarchical organization of the Federation and its attitudes toward ethnics, aliens and others" (111). Again, there is no mention of the nature of leadership, military structure, nor the role of the captain as commander and ultimate decision-maker. While Pounds limits his discussion to only the original series and Next Generation, his arguments are compromised by the fact that later series featured an African-American (Benjamin Sisko) and a woman (Katherine Janeway) as commanders. The semiotic observations he offers are interesting and merit consideration, but they lose validity because the practical demands of television story telling are not addressed, nor are all Star Trek series considered.

In chapter 5, "Selected Logs," Pounds sets forth his strategy of deconstruction. Limiting his analysis to selected episodes within the two series and focusing on the portrayals of ethnic Star Fleet officers, his goal is to uncover codes of ethnicity and ideological content that had gone previously undiscovered. To accomplish this, he first identified the codes associated with an "Other" and analyzed them narratologically and semiotically so that they might be more fully understood and easily read. He then planned to examine the economic, institutional, and cultural context that influenced the creation of ethnic characters and codes. The episodes of both series were searched for ethnic content. Such content was then examined for recurring symbolic information and then for patterns in that symbolic representation. The relevant episodes are identified in the chapter and their ethnic content described in detail.

The categorization of content begins in chapter 6, in which four distinct types of codes are identified: "environmental or social setting in which the scene occurs; the sociological relationship among characters; character’s actions, including gestures, postures and attitudes, and character’s physical appearance through anatomy and vestments" (133). The object was to find what types of relationships existed between the use of any of the four coding types. The discussion of the first two code types is clear and straightforward, but the discussion of roles and actions is more problematic. Pounds’s characterization of Guinan as a character who functions in a service capacity is a very narrow reading of the character who often served as a source of wisdom and guidance for the captain and others. Similarly, the characterization of Geordi La Forge as "a glorified mechanic, a category of worker that is associated with physical effort rather than mind work" seems way off base. The author’s position seems based on a single comment in which the character laments his problems writing papers, and ignores the numerous times the character’s genius saved the day. His discussion of another ethnic character, Dr. Daystrom, is similarly flawed. He focuses on a plot in which Daystrom’s computer endangers the Enterprise, but neglects the fact that the preeminent scientific institution mentioned in any Star Trek series (aside from the Vulcan Science Academy) is the Daystrom Institute. If this ethnic character were held in such disrespect, why would he be so honored? Yet, Pounds writes, "In other words, Star Trek shows, through the roles it associates with characters, that it is appropriate for ethnic characters to be employed in the support of machines, and in the service of technology, but conceptualizing inventions and developing technology constitute an overreaching, a hubris, that is clearly off-limits for them" (140). Pounds’s analysis of the roles and actions of characters seems to be limited and forced in several instances. He notes that Counselor Troi has a position on the bridge, but no command responsibilities, yet fails to note that she completes the requirements to become a commander later in the series, taking responsibility in critical situations. He discusses the limitations ethnic characters seem to face in romantic relationships, particularly in Next Generation, but fails to note that they have no fewer relationships, nor less successful ones than non-ethnic characters. Picard, Crusher, and Riker do not have lasting romantic relationships, though in the final season Troi and Worf (two ethnic characters) appear to have developed a committed relationship. While only one marriage occurs on Next Generation, it occurs between Miles O’Brien and Keiko, a crewperson of Asian descent.

Similar problems occur in the examination of the social relationships among characters. The author’s contention that ethnic characters’ social relationships are inequitably portrayed or absent is questionable. He states that, "ethnicity is associated with criminality" when Spock (an ethnic character) calls the sleeping travelers "Napoleons" in the original series episode, "Space Seed." Wasn’t Napoleon a white male? Were not the travelers in the episode predominately Caucasian? Pounds’s criticism of Worf’s killing of Duras in the TNG episode "Half a Life" completely ignores the practical necessities of chain of command and military discipline. He compares Picard’s appropriate identification with his French heritage to Worf’s killing of Duras, which is deemed obviously inappropriate. He finds that to be a double standard, when in fact, he’s comparing apples and oranges. In another instance, Pounds notes that Worf is allowed to wear the vestments of his heritage, but he criticizes that for making the Klingon character appear "different." It seems as though the author is trying to have it both ways. He criticizes Star Trek creators for not developing ethnic characters and their culture, but finds the accoutrements of that development "branding" and discriminatory. Similar problems occur when Pounds finds that Geordi LaForge (an ethnic character) is "insufficient" to have a relationship with a real woman, but when Dr. Crusher’s love life is limited or unsuccessful, she has been "protected" from sexual activity. Further, Geordi is considered to be a pitiful character because his best friend is Data, an android. Pounds fails to acknowledge that Geordi is a respected friend to the entire crew, and his relationship with Data could be interpreted as a demonstration of his greater capacity for understanding, caring, and acceptance. Other observations in the chapter are equally selective.

In the final chapter, Pounds reiterates his thesis that ethic characters serve as functions of the ship and argues that, "Star Trek’s ethic representations, therefore, lean heavily on the old negative stereotypes that associate ethic characters with body-service occupations, machine operations, violent behavior, and sexual aggression." (186) Pounds laments that in twenty-five years, television had made little progress in the portrayal of ethnic characters. While he might have expected more from Star Trek, he found that it perpetuated the privileged status of the white male into the future, and he argues that Next Generation actually lost ground in comparison to the positions on ethnicity taken by the original Star Trek series. While these points merit serious consideration, Gregory’s arguments are weakened when he makes claims that are not clearly substantiated. He contends that minority characters are always shown in subordinate roles, but fails to mention a number of ethnic captains and admirals in positions of responsibility in both series, including Admirar Savar (a Vulcan), Captain Satelk (a Vulcan), Admiral Nogura (of Asian descent), Captain Edwell (of Gaspar VII), or Captain Zimbata (of African American descent). He claims that minority characters are given no reference to families or familial history, and yet Spock’s heritage is explored through both series, Geordi’s mother is introduced, Worf’s family is the focus of several episodes, as are Deanna Troi’s and Data’s. While there may be conflict in some of these relationships, conflict exists in the family relationships of the white male characters as well, exemplified by Captain Picard’s strained relationship with his father and brother, and Will Riker’s equally difficult relationships with his father and Thomas Riker. Conflict is the content of drama, and blissfully happy families are not the primary focus of many successful dramatic episodes. The existence of conflict should not be an automatic indicator of inequitable treatment of ethnic characters.

Pounds also contends that alien species are portrayed at a distinct disadvantage, that their cultures are not fully developed, and that they are presented in a predominantly negative way. He does concede that the Borg, Kingons, Romulans and others are designed to be villains and would understandably require negative traits to fulfill their roles in the narrative. He even notes that efforts were made to establish consistent and detailed alien cultures, but believes those efforts were insufficient. His concern is that Star Trek operates from a clearly "terrocentric" position, and that humans learn very little from the alien cultures with which they come in contact. While that point could be debated, the parsimony with which alien cultures are drawn and which Pounds finds problematic is most certainly a influenced by the time and format limitations of the medium and genre within which they exist. Similarly, the cultural relativism that places human interests, perspectives, and culture in a prominent position, and which Gregory also finds disturbing, is most likely a function of the fact that the audiences for Star Trek series are historically more likely to be human than Klingon, Romulan or Borg. Pounds seems to forget at times that there are very real and very practical constraints on the creation of any television series. He finds fault with both Star Trek series for not being more than they could realistically be expected to be, given the limitations of the medium, episodic television, and institutional realities.

Therein lies the perspective of Race in Space. Given a fairly auspicious beginning with the original Star Trek, Pounds would have liked to see Star Trek: Next Generation truly "go where no one has gone before" and feature ethnic characters in new and prominent ways. While he clearly points out that TNG might have done better than it did, he fails to give credit where credit is due and fails to acknowledge the limitations to story telling mandated by episodic television. His disappointment in and criticism of Star Trek series is further compromised by limiting his discussion only to Star Trek and Star Trek: The Next Generation. Much of what he would like to have seen in the portrayal of ethnicity actually does occur in the Star Trek motion pictures and later series. DS9 featured an African American as Commander and later Captain of the station. Voyager’s Captain is female, and its first officer is of Native American descent. In both series, relationships are explored in more depth, as are characteristics of alien cultures. While Pounds criticizes TNG, many of his criticisms are addressed in these series and the motion pictures, which were in production while TNG was on the air. It should be noted that for a time, TNG, DS9, and Voyager were all airing in the same season. The omission of content from the motion pictures and the last two series in Pounds evaluation leaves the knowledgeable reader with the feeling that his perspective is incomplete. Compounded with other omissions, his position seems to be selectively perceived as well.

Both Star Trek: Parallel Narratives and Race in Space: The Representation of Ethnicity in Star Trek and Star Trek: The Next Generation offer readers valuable information and perspective on the influence of Star Trek. Gregory’s Parallel Narratives is a thorough and substantiated work on the series as modern mythology. It is readable, and its claims are consistent and well supported. Pounds’s Race in Space offers a valuable look at Star Trek’s first two series’ portrayal of the minority and alien as "Other." While limited in scope and hampered by selective perception at times, it offers a different reading of the Star Trek series, asks valuable questions, and is a worthwhile addition to the literature about the Star Trek phenomenon.

References